Perform Newsletter – Dr. Andy Galpin

How to Properly Taper & Peak for Performance

Tue, 09 Dec 2025 13:00:00 GMT

Tapering is a powerful strategy for improving performance, and in this newsletter, I'll explain how to taper and peak for optimal performance. If you want to learn more, listen to the full Plateaus, Overtraining & How to Peak episode.

In the episode, I discussed plateaus and overtraining and explained how physical stress leads to adaptation. There are 3 key scenarios that relate training stress to rest and recovery:

Insufficient Stress: When training stress load is too low relative to your physiological resilience, it leads to plateaus or no adaptation.
Sufficient Stress: When the training load is challenging and exceeds your physiological resilience but is followed by adequate recovery, it leads to beneficial adaptations.
This is the goal state for peaking— training at the right intensity and balancing it with recovery to optimize performance before competition.

Excessive Stress: When training stress exceeds your recovery capacity, it leads to negative outcomes and, potentially, overtraining.

True overtraining is rare and causes serious negative effects. More commonly, athletes experience non-functional overreaching, where performance is stalled or declined due to excessive training and/or insufficient recovery. True overtraining typically takes months to recover from, whereas recovery from non-functional overreaching takes days/weeks. The key is to balance intense training with adequate recovery, and this is where tapering becomes important to maximize the benefits of your training.

What is a Deload vs. a Taper?

Tapering, deloading and periodization are distinct but related training strategies that can help improve athletic performance while simultaneously reducing injury risk: Periodization: a long-term training strategy (typically months to years) that cycles between different intensity phases, such as incorporating deload periods after blocks of intense training (e.g., 4-6 weeks of high intensity followed by 1-2 weeks of deload). Extensive research supports the fact that periodized programs are nearly always more effective for building strength, speed, power and endurance than non-periodized programs
Numerous forms of periodization exist, with most research finding roughly equal benefits across the styles. Having a plan really helps.
Deload: a planned reduction in training intensity or volume, generally lasting a few days to 1 to 2 weeks, to allow recovery after intense training. This could also be an unplanned break, such as taking a few days off when feeling fatigued or sick.
Deloading is not necessarily a full training break (off day) but can be. Reducing training volume by 30-50% is an effective and popular deload strategy.
Tapering: a specific, pre-competition phase where training volume is reduced to minimize fatigue and, thus, maximize performance. It is a more focused, strategic approach than deloading and is designed for peaking before an event.

Tapering enhances performance by reducing fatigue while maintaining or enhancing physical fitness (known as the “fitness-fatigue” model). Your physical fitness is relatively stable, while fatigue is more transient. The result is physical strength and endurance (VO2 max, etc.) increase, despite less training.

Research consistently supports the fact that tapering leads to performance gains across various sports — endurance, strength, power and team sports — by reducing fatigue and enhancing muscle function, particularly in fast-twitch muscle fibers. These gains can be as high as 3-6%, which may seem small, but these are critical in elite competitive settings.

Guidelines for an Effective Taper

The goal of tapering is to reduce fatigue and optimize performance without compromising fitness, ensuring athletes are competition ready. Mismanaging tapering can result in a "flat" performance or mis-timing a peak. Use these general guidelines to plan a taper before a competition:

Duration: Tapering typically lasts 2 to 21 days, depending on the sport and training load. Shorter events (e.g., high jump) may need only a few days, while long-term training generally requires a longer taper. Athletes who have undergone significant overload (intense or long training periods) will benefit most from tapering.
Intensity: Intensity is usually maintained or slightly increased — less than (<) 25% — during tapering, but should not be drastically changed. Athletes in endurance sports may continue higher-intensity work, while strength athletes might opt for a slight reduction in intensity — approximately (~)85-90% of their max.
Volume: Regardless of the sport, it is essential to reduce training volume by 40-60%. Increasing volume during tapering will negatively impact performance. Volume and intensity should be balanced, as increasing both can be counterproductive. If intensity is maintained, volume should be reduced by at least 25% to allow adequate physical recovery.
Frequency: Training frequency is typically maintained or slightly reduced (typically by 1 day/week). A significant drop in frequency, such as reducing workouts from 5 to 2 days/week, could lead to sluggishness or skill loss.

Taper Styles

There are three main tapering styles, each with a different approach to reducing volume. These general styles should be further tailored to specific sports and individual needs:

Step Taper: Involves a sudden, significant reduction in training volume to a lower, consistent level for the duration of the taper — for example, dropping from 20 miles/day to 12 miles/day. This style is common in strength training and powerlifting.
Linear Taper: A gradual, consistent decrease in training volume over the taper period. Typically used in endurance sports, a linear taper decreases volume steadily (e.g., from 20 miles daily to 16 miles per day the following week, then to 13 miles per week the first week, etc.).
Exponential Taper: Combines aninitial rapid volume dropfollowed by a moregradual reduction. This method offers a quicker decrease in volume and is sometimes used when a more substantial taper is needed before competition.

Important Considerations

The above tapering guidelines should be customized for your specific sport, ensuring careful attention to timing and volume reduction while still maintaining skill level. Below are additional factors to consider when planning your taper:

Personalization is the key to an effective taper. Athletes should experiment during regional events or qualifiers to find the tapering strategy that works best for them.
Documentation and good note taking during these preliminary events will help fine-tune your tapering strategy.
Rest Days: The number of days taken completely off from training before competition varies by sport. Strength sports require anywhere from 1 to 5 rest days, depending on the specific event.
Training Peak: For weightlifters, the highest training volume typically peaks 5 to 6 weeks before the competition, and intensity peaks 2 to 2.5 weeks before a competition.
Sprinting: Research on sprint tapering is limited, but studies like this one can be followed for an effective 10-day taper to improve sprint performance.
Team Sports: Tapering for team sports follows similar principles to that done for individual sports but will require additional planning. Year-round athletes should plan for 2-3 tapers per year, especially in long or overlapping seasons, to prevent burnout and ensure peak performance. Skill maintenance is crucial during tapering while in team sports — athletes should reduce conditioning volume while maintaining skill work (e.g., shooting or passing) to avoid unnecessary fatigue and to keep skills sharp.

Physiology & Tapering

During a taper, athletes experience several physiological improvements, such as better muscle glycogen stores, hydration, sleep quality, reduced creatine kinase and lactate levels and enhanced fast-twitch muscle fiber function. A common misconception is that testosterone levels rise significantly during a taper. In reality, testosterone doesn't typically increase, but performance still improves, as testosterone is not the only factor affecting physical size or performance.

More reflective of recovery during tapering are biomarkers such as the glutamate-to-glutamine ratio, which is linked to overtraining and reverses during taper. Additionally, fast-twitch muscle fibers, which are 5 to 8 times more powerful than slow-twitch fibers, are particularly responsive to tapering, improving work capacity, peak power, sprint performance and other metrics — even after just one week or less of tapering.

I hope you find these guidelines for an effective taper helpful and will start incorporating taper periods into your training plan to boost performance.

Remember: in the words of Bill Bowerman, “If you have a body, you are an athlete.”

-Andy

Nutrition to Support Brain Health & Offset Brain Injuries

Fri, 23 May 2025 12:00:00 GMT

In the episode “Nutrition to Support Brain Health & Offset Brain Injuries,” I discuss nutrition strategies to reduce the risk of brain injuries like concussions and traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) and support recovery from them. These same strategies also enhance brain function, promote long-term health and support healthy aging. This newsletter highlights 7 key nutritional interventions.

Brain Injuries

Brain injuries are categorized into mild, moderate and severe levels based on symptom severity. Mild TBIs are the most common and involve brief confusion or amnesia (lasting 30 minutes or less). Most recreational and sports-related concussions fall into this category. Moderate TBIs are defined by loss of consciousness or amnesia (from 30 minutes to 24 hours) and result in more severe symptoms, like prolonged cognitive issues and memory loss. Severe TBIs can cause significant loss of consciousness (lasting days to weeks) and result in long-term cognitive problems, significant memory issues, mood changes and learning difficulties.

The brain's response to a TBI triggers a cascade of events, starting with the physical trauma experienced by the brain, and can lead to excitotoxicity (overstimulation), energy deficits and inflammation, all of which exacerbate neuronal damage. Cell death, oxidative stress and disrupted energy production can result in lasting impairments of the brain's ability to function efficiently and heal. Below are nutritional approaches that can support TBI recovery.

#1 – Creatine Monohydrate

You’re probably familiar with creatine. It’s been gaining steam in recent years. Creatine is stored in muscles, the liver and the brain and is a quick energy source (energy deficits are a key issue for TBIs). Creatine enhances cognition in both healthy individuals and those with brain injuries. It may reduce second-impact syndrome(repeated head trauma) andcortical damage by up to 50%, likely by preventing mitochondrial dysfunction, maintaining cell membranes and reducing oxidative stress.

Creatine Dose

General dose: 5 grams (g). Post-TBI recovery dose: 20 g(I suggest splitting into 4 smaller doses.)
Those at high risk for injury may benefit from 20-30 g/day for 1 week before an event with risk of injury.
A potential side effect is mild GI distress (bloating, gas, cramps), especially at high doses.
Creatine's benefits are gradual, so maintain a consistent dose regardless of injury risk.

Whole Food Sources of Creatine

Creatine is found in meats like beef, chicken, salmon, tuna and cod, but it's challenging to get enough from food alone, especially at high dosages. Typical meat servings provide about (~) 0.4-0.6 g creatine per 100 g (3.5 oz). That means you’d need to eat ~2.5 lbs of cooked steak to get 5 g of creatine.
For vegetarians and vegans, supplementation is often necessary.

#2 – Omega-3s

Omega-3s, particularly DHA and EPA, found in fish oil, are essential for optimal brain health. DHA constitutes ~10% of the brain and is essential for neurological function, as well as for preventing injury and neurodegeneration. EPA supports cognitive function by enhancing vascular health, as well as oxygen and nutrient delivery within the brain. Omega-3s have been well-studied for TBI, and they improve blood flow to the brain and reduce inflammation.

You can have your Omega-3 levels tested through my company Vitality Blueprint (use code PERFORM10 for 10% off), or via providers such as Quest Diagnostics, Labcorp and others.

Omega-3 Dose & Supplements

General dose: 2-4 g/day. Post-TBI recovery dose: 4 g/day.
There are no side effects, but it could cause loose stool at higher doses.
Daily supplementation timing is flexible; omega-3s are beneficial before & after injury.
Most omega-3 supplements contain both DHA and EPA.

Whole Food Sources of Omega-3

Fatty fish (salmon, herring, sardines, mackerel, trout) are the best sources of omega-3s. Salmon provides about 2 g of omega-3s per 100 g (3.5 oz) fish.
Adequate omega-3 intake for brain health can often be achieved through food, but supplementation is often necessary, especially for vegans and vegetarians.

#3 – Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)Vitamin B2 is crucial for DHA utilization in the brain and is involved in energy production and glutathione synthesis(the body's primary antioxidant), all of which support TBI recovery. While human studies are limited, riboflavin shows promising results in reducing recovery time after injury. Other B vitamins (B6, B9, B12) help to reduce homocysteine levels, which are linked to cognitive decline and neuropathy in TBI.

Riboflavin Dose

General dosage: 400 milligrams (mg) per day. Post-injury dose: 400 mg once per day for 2 weeks.
Multivitamins contain insufficient riboflavin, so a dedicated supplement is often needed.
Timing isn’t critical — mornings may be preferable if you find it boosts energy.
Riboflavin is well-tolerated with very few side effects.

Whole Food Sources of Riboflavin

Riboflavin is found in beef liver (3.4 mg per 100 g), whey protein (2 mg per serving), or fortified cereals.
Supplementation is often needed, as food alone requires impractically large portions.

#4 – CholineCholine enhances brain health by supporting the blood-brain barrier and is a precursor to acetylcholine (a key neurotransmitter) and glutathione (an important antioxidant). Higher choline intake is linked to reduced Alzheimer’s and dementia biomarkers. Choline levels in the brain decrease with repeated head impact, likely contributing to second-impact syndrome and cumulative damage. Meta-analyses generally report positive benefits of choline for TBI recovery, though further research is needed to understand its full benefit and mechanisms.

Choline Dose & Supplements

General dose: 500 mg/day. Post-injury dose: 1-2 g/day.
Higher doses post-injury will likely require supplements such as Alpha-GPC and phosphatidylcholine. (Vitamin B complexes typically only provide 20-30 mg of choline.)
Take supplements earlier in the day to avoid potential sleep disruption.

Whole Food Sources of Choline

Meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy, beans, beef liver and cruciferous vegetables are good sources of choline. You can reasonably meet baseline choline needs with whole foods. Beef liver provides around 400 mg/100 g. Eggs provide about 150 mg per egg.

5 – Branched-Chain Amino Acids (BCAAs)BCAAs consist of 3 amino acids: leucine, isoleucine and valine. BCAAs act as nitrogen donors in the brain to produce glutamate and GABA, key neurotransmitters involved in TBI pathology. After a TBI, symptom severity correlates with BCAA suppression in the brain. Evidence suggests BCAAs may improve sleep quality and reduce cognitive deficits in TBI patients.

BCAAs Dose

Post-injury dose: Up to 55 g/day in the case of severe TBI.
If you are consuming enough dietary protein (about 1 g per pound of body weight), you are likely getting enough BCAAs for general health.

Whole Food Sources of BCAAs

Protein-rich foods like meat, poultry and dairy are high in BCAAs (3-4 g per 100 g serving of meat).
Reaching higher doses post-injury through food would require eating ~40-50 ounces of meat daily, which makes supplementation more practical for TBI recovery.

#6 – MagnesiumMagnesium is involved in 600+ processes in the body, including cell signaling, energy production, learning and memory. Deficiencies are linked to conditions like diabetes, migraines and heart disease. After a TBI, brain magnesium levels drop significantly, correlating with injury severity and symptoms. After an injury, magnesium helps reduce brain excitotoxicity to help alleviate some memory, mood, and sleep issues.

Magnesium Dose

Recommended dose: 400 mg per day.
It may improve sleep in some individuals when taken at night, depending on the form.
Available in different supplement forms (e.g., bisglycinate, malate, threonate).
GI distress is the main side effect; bisglycinate and malate are more well-tolerated.
Magnesium is very safe with little risk of harm.

Whole Food Sources of Magnesium

Found in foods like pumpkin seeds, chia seeds, almonds and spinach.
Pumpkin seeds are one of the richest sources, offering about 200 mg per 100 g of seeds.

#7 – Blueberry AnthocyaninsAnthocyanins, found in berries, are part of the flavonoid family and have many health benefits. Animal research shows that blueberry extracts post-TBI can increase brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) to support memory and cognition. They also protect against oxidative stress due to their antioxidant properties.

Anthocyanins Dose & Whole Food Sources

Recommended dose: 500 mg.
Blueberries are an easy and effective way to incorporate anthocyanins into your diet. About 1 cup of blueberries contains ~500 mg of anthocyanins.
Other berries like strawberries, raspberries and cranberries also contain anthocyanins and likely offer similar benefits.

Remember: in the words of Bill Bowerman, “If you have a body, you are an athlete.”

-Andy

How to Increase Muscle Size & Strength

Wed, 06 Nov 2024 13:00:00 GMT

In this newsletter, I explain the importance of skeletal muscle for longevity, health, and performance and tell how you can test, interpret and improve your muscle size and strength.

For more on these topics, listen to the podcast episodes titled “Muscle for Performance & Longevity” and “Building Muscle & Strength.”

Muscle Mass & Strength Impact Longevity

Skeletal muscle is the largest organ in the body and plays a crucial role in facilitating communication among other organ systems. It’s essential for numerous physiological functions, including blood glucose regulation, energy production, cardiovascular health, cognitive function, hormone balance, bone health, and more. Insufficient or compromised skeletal muscle leads to significant issues and negatively impacts both short- and long-term health.

Muscle mass naturally declines with age, with men losing about 40% of their muscle mass from age 25 to 80 (unless they do something about it!). Sarcopenia, the excessive loss of muscle beyond what is expected from normal aging, significantly increases mortality risk; individuals with low muscle mass and strength face a greater risk of premature death. Engaging in resistance training can prevent sarcopenia, improve health outcomes, and reduce the risk of dementia. And, unlike many factors that influence longevity, such as genetics, skeletal muscle is uniquely adaptable and hyper responsive to lifestyle changes.

Muscle fibers are classified as slow-twitch and fast-twitch; each type serves distinct functions, and their distribution shifts with age and activity level. Fast-twitch muscle fibers are essential for generating force and explosive power, enabling activities that become challenging in older adults, such as catching oneself from a fall, climbing stairs, or lifting objects. Prolonged inactivity or insufficient exercise can lead to denervation and loss of these fibers, resulting in reduced motor coordination and weakness.

While all muscle movements engage slow-twitch fibers, fast-twitch fibers are only activated during high-force activities. These fibers decline first with age, making high-force resistance training essential for preserving fast-twitch fibers as we grow older.

Test and Interpret Muscle Mass & Strength

Muscle Mass

The gold standard for testing muscle mass is via MRI or ultrasound, which provides high-resolution images of specific muscles or muscle groups. However, full-body scans can be cost prohibitive. Newer MRI technologies, like Springbok, offer full-body 3D imaging of individual muscle volume and allow for comparisons, such as between the right and left sides of the body, but are not practical for everyone.

More accessible alternatives for estimating muscle mass include DEXA scans ($100-200 in the U.S.) or home scales that utilize bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA). One common estimate is the appendicular muscle mass, which refers to the amount of muscle in the arms and legs. The Fat-Free Mass Index (FFMI) is another useful method for estimating muscle mass. Men should aim for an FFMI score above 20, while women should target a score above 16.5. While these estimates may not be as precise as some alternatives, they still provide valuable insight into whether you have adequate muscle mass.

Muscle Strength

To test your strength, try the following exercises:

Bench Press: Men should aim to be able to bench press their body weight (i.e., a 200-pound man should be able to lift 200 pounds), while women should target about 60% of their body weight.
Leg Press: Men should aim to be able to press twice their body weight, whereas women should target 1.5 times their body weight.

Grip Strength: Use hand grip dynamometers to test both hands. Men should aim for a grip strength greater than 100 pounds (45 kilograms) on each side, and women should aim for more than 60 pounds (about 27.25 kilograms) on each side. Grip strength naturally changes with age and differs between men and women. You can compare your grip strength to age- and gender-specific normative data, which will show exactly how you compare to others in your age group, typically broken down into 5-year intervals.

The benefits of strength training are significant, making it a stronger predictor of longevity and quality of life than muscle mass alone. There is no upper limit to the benefits of increased strength, so don’t limit yourself to these bodyweight recommendations. Improving strength will enhance overall health and lower the risk of all-cause mortality and dementia.

If you observe asymmetries in muscle strength or mass between the front and back of the body or between the left and right sides, it’s important to take note. While some muscle asymmetry can benefit sports requiring rotation and torque, it should remain below 10% to avoid potential health issues. Research has shown that grip strength asymmetries can indicate an increased risk for sarcopenia and muscle denervation. However, it's important to note that this research is still in early stages — the 10% threshold represents our current best understanding but is not yet well-established through extensive studies. Consider this guideline as a general reference point rather than a strict cutoff while we await more definitive research.

Improve Muscle Mass & Strength

Although there are many methods of increasing muscle size and strength, it's crucial to remember that functional performance matters more than muscle size alone. With this performance-first mindset in mind, here are a few fundamental training principles to guide your journey:

Nutrition: Aim for a daily dietary protein intake of 1 gram of protein per pound of body weight (2.2 grams of protein per kg of body weight); consuming less than 0.7 grams of protein per pound of body weight (about 1.6 g/kg) can hinder muscle growth. You may also need to slightly increase your overall caloric intake to support your training. Many find it difficult to hit the 1 gram of protein per pound of body weight. Personally, I like to incorporate 1-2 scoops of a high-quality, grass-fed whey protein into my daily routine to help me hit this target. The bars from David also help me with this, given their 28 grams of protein per bar, with just 150 calories. These bars are delicious. (Please note that both Momentous and David are sponsors of Perform.)
Exercise Selection: It's important to train all major muscle groups weekly. You can choose from a wide range of exercise options, including dumbbells, kettlebells, weight machines, bodyweight exercises and resistance bands.
Many types of exercise — including eccentrics (negatives), isometric training styles (high intensity and low volume, moderate or low intensity and high volume), and various workout splits (full body, body part, push/pull) — are effective.
Range of Motion: Train all joints through their full range of motion while maintaining proper posture and joint integrity, generally avoiding excessive wobbling or shaking. Ensuring adequate muscle support around each joint is essential to protect both the exercising joint and the surrounding joints.
Be Intentional: During each exercise, focus on technique, movement and tempo (fast or slow). Master form before increasing intensity.
Balance Movement Planes & Posture: Engage all muscle groups, not just those with aesthetic appeal. Strive for balanced strength both front to back and side to side to prevent weaknesses in muscles and joints that could impact future movement. Vary exercise equipment occasionally (but not too frequently) and incorporate unilateral, bilateral and rotational exercises to correct asymmetries and improve balance in all movement planes.
Progressive Overload: Intentionally and gradually challenge the body. Note that it’s typically best to increase by just 2-5% (either the weight, or the reps, but not both) each week to effectively, and safely, execute on progressive overload. This increase should only take place if you’re able to maintain proper form. For strength training, this typically means increasing intensity (weight) each week.
For hypertrophy training, this typically means increasing volume (the number of sets, or the number of reps) each week.
Know Your Goal: Are you aiming to build muscle size (hypertrophy) or increase muscle strength (force production)? Training for hypertrophy generally involves higher rep ranges, while strength training focuses on heavier weights with lower rep ranges.

Hypertrophy Training to Increase Muscle Size

Use the following guidelines as part of your training program to increase muscle size:

Repetitions: Typically 8-12 reps per set, though effective muscle growth can occur with rep ranges from 5 to 30 reps (or possibly more).

Intensity: The amount of weight lifted scales with the number of reps; for 8-12 reps, aim for 70-80% of your one-rep max (1RM), while 20-30 reps might be closer to around 30% of your 1RM.

Rest Intervals: Rest for 30 seconds to 5 minutes. Shorter rests lead to fatigue and require fewer reps or lifting less weight.

Frequency: Aim for 15-20 working sets weekly per major muscle group, spread across 2-3 days. For example, when targeting the hamstrings, pick 2 exercises and perform 3 sets of each. By training 3 days a week, you'll accumulate a total of 18 working sets throughout the week.

72-hour rule: Train all muscle groups every 72 hours to effectively stimulate growth while minimizing overtraining or excessive muscle soreness.

A well-structured program will integrate these training guidelines and is particularly beneficial for beginners. Consider trying the Hypertrophy Training Program by Menno Henselmans for 8 weeks, which focuses on full-body hypertrophy in 4 training sessions per week. Listen to learn more and access the program here.

Strength Training

Incorporate the following guidelines to increase muscle strength:

Repetitions: Aim for 3-5 reps per set. Excessive reps will lead to fatigue and reduce the amount of weight you can lift.

Intensity: Lift heavy! Use weights close to your 1RM (> about 80%). But be smart and conservative with the load (weight). We can always add weight next time. Don’t get hurt!

Rest Intervals: Rest for 2-5 minutes between sets for adequate recovery and to maintain movement quality.

Frequency: Aim for 3 to 5 training sessions per week.

The 3-to-5 Rule: To maximize strength improvements, select 3-5 exercises, perform each exercise with 3-5 reps for 3-5 sets, rest for 3-5 minutes between sets, and train 3-5 days per week.

An excellent training program to improve full-body strength and power was developed by Travis Mash. This is a 12-week program with training sessions 4 days per week. Listen to learn more and learn about the program here.

Remember: In the words of Bill Bowerman, “If you have a body, you are an athlete.”

Best, Andy

How to Improve Fitness & VO2 Max

Thu, 10 Oct 2024 12:00:00 GMT

In this newsletter, I explain why VO2 max is such an important health metric and how you can test, interpret, and improve your VO2 max and overall fitness. These topics are covered in more detail in the podcast episodes I did titled “Building a Strong Heart” and “Improve VO2 Max & Endurance.”

VO2 Max & All-Cause Mortality

Cardiorespiratory fitness measures how well the cardiopulmonary system brings in and transports oxygen to your muscles, and how well those muscles extract that oxygen and use it for energy production. It’s measured using a VO2 max test. Your VO2 max is an important—if not the most important—marker of longevity. Higher VO2 max scores are associated with overall health improvements and reduced all-cause mortality (death from any cause).

In 1989, a landmark study led by Dr. Steven Blair found that “age-adjusted, all-cause mortality rates declined across physical fitness” levels. Blair’s study found that men and women at the lowest fitness levels had significantly higher mortality rates, but they also highlighted that even modest improvements in fitness drastically reduce risk.

Subsequent studies demonstrated that VO2 max is more predictive of longevity than traditional risk factors like smoking, diabetes, or coronary artery disease. Another large study (>750,000 participants) took into account race, sex, and other comorbidities (such as diabetes) and found similar results. Across all of these studies, the benefits of higher VO2 max don’t have an upper limit, meaning that continuing to increase your cardiorespiratory fitness will continuously benefit your health and longevity.

Testing VO2 Max

Lab testing is the gold standard for assessing your VO2 max. These tests typically cost between $75-250 and are offered by various providers. (Some high-end gyms, including podcast sponsor CONTINUUM in New York City, offer VO2 max tests as part of their membership programs. CONTINUUM also does body composition testing, blood panels, sleep testing, and more as part of its membership onboarding.) Wearables (e.g., watches, rings) can provide estimated VO2 max scores, which can help gauge your current fitness level, especially if you are new to physical training. However, current wearables lack sufficient precision and accuracy, making them less helpful for highly-trained individuals.

There are alternative methods (submaximal exercise tests) to estimate your VO2 max, including:

The 3-Minute Step Test: take your starting heart rate, then step up and down on a small box continuously for 3 minutes. Then, measure your heart rate and enter it into this calculator to estimate your VO2 max.
The 12-Minute Run Test (Cooper’s Test): run as far as you can in 12 minutes and note the distance. Then, use this calculator for an estimate of your VO2 max.

Interpreting VO2 Max Scores

VO2 max (aka your cardiovascular fitness) is the maximum amount of oxygen (O2) the body can utilize during exercise. It’s calculated using Fick’s Equation: VO2 max = CO × a‑vO2 difference

CO(CardiacOutput) = Stroke Volume (SV) × Heart Rate (HR) Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped per heartbeat × the number of heart beats per minute
a-vO2 difference is the difference in oxygen concentration between the arterial and venous blood – this indicates how effectively your tissue extract oxygen

Your relative VO2 max score represents the volume of oxygen (measured in mL) you can use per kg of body weight per minute. It is conceptualized as a score from 0 to 100 mL/kg/min. (As a note, VO2 max can also be measured in absolute terms, which does not factor in body weight. This is simply mL/min.)

VO2 max scores will vary by age, sex, and fitness level. A moderately trained individual in their 20-30s will average VO2 max scores of 35-45 mL/kg/min. Scores below 18 for males and 15 for females indicate very low levels of general fitness, and these individuals likely find many daily tasks challenging to complete independently. Compare your VO2 max score to these charts sorted by age and sex.

I like to say, “There’s no excuse to be under 50 unless you are over 50,” so that is a good VO2 max score to aim for. VO2 max is highly responsive to training, making it a great fitness marker to indicate the effectiveness of your training programs and gauge changes in overall fitness.

It’s worth noting that your VO2 max is generally considered to be 50% genetically determined and 50% determined by your lifestyle and training. This is great news because it means that all of us have a lot of control over our VO2 max.

Improve VO2 Max

Fick’s equation reveals two key factors that can be improved to increase VO2 max:

a-vO2 difference – how much oxygen is extracted and used. This can be enhanced with mitochondrial health (size, number, efficiency) or increased capillarization of tissues.
stroke volume – i.e., the heart’s strength. The strength of the left ventricle increases with exercise to increase the volume of blood exiting the heart in each heartbeat.

Exercise is a powerful stimulus to improve both of these factors.

Exercise Intensity

When designing a training program, it’s essential to vary the exercise stimuli by alternating your training intensity. Training intensities are sometimes referred to by their heart rate (HR) zones, gears, or “colors.” While there are many ways to improve VO2 max, what follows is a very effective approach. Aim for:

Low intensity for 70% of training (~60-80% of HR peak). You can hold a conversation while exercising at this intensity and use nasal breathing. Low-intensity training improves metabolic efficiency and sustained oxygen utilization. It also minimizes injury risk and reduces recovery time.
Moderate intensity for 25% of training (80-90% of HR peak).
High intensity for 5% of training (>90% HR peak). When training at high intensities, you can’t hold a conversation and must use your mouth to breathe.

Mode of Exercise

While the type of exercise does matter, it’s not the primary factor. The extent of VO2 max improvements depends on the extent of muscle engagement; using more muscles leads to higher oxygen utilization and greater VO2 max improvements.

Use whatever exercise mode you prefer, such as cycling, running, swimming, rowing, pulling a sled, or an assault bike. Pick something that requires high effort but which you are technically proficient at and can maintain good form for the duration of the exercise.

Beginners should be cautious with high-impact exercises (jumping, eccentric movements) to avoid injury and excessive muscle soreness. You can also vary exercise modalities throughout the week; just ensure you adhere to the intensity guidelines.

Programs & Expected Results

Following a training program can help ensure your weekly exercise regimen is designed with the above principles in mind. A good program for low- to moderately-trained individuals is Joel Jamison’s Metamorphosis Program. This 8-week program is designed specifically to improve VO2 max. Each day incorporates a warm-up, conditioning, and strength training and varies in intensity across the week.

Another excellent option is a marathon training program called Faster in 50, designed by Dan Garner. This program includes daily warm-ups, resistance, and endurance training blocks. Learn about and access the complete programs here.

Structured training across various intensities and modalities can result in up to 30-50% increases in VO2 max for untrained individuals over 6-12 months. Highly trained individuals will also be able to see improvements and can typically expect an increase of 10-20% within a year.

Remember: in the words of Bill Bowerman, “If you have a body, you are an athlete.”

Best, Andy